The Wandering Rover: Big News From Mars?

A short piece to bring to your attention some interesting news from NASA. It appears that the most recent robotic wanderer on Mars, the Curiosity Rover, may have found something whilst analysing the chemical composition of Martian soil.

What did they find?

Well, at the moment the team over at NASA, and the Mars Science Laboratory, are only hinting at something potentially significant. A very recent article from NPR indicates that one of the instruments present on the rover, the Sample Analysis at Mars (SAM), has picked up some soil from the Martian surface, and may have detected something of note. To use the words of John Grotzinger, the principal investigator for the rover mission:

"This data is gonna be one for the history books. It's looking really good..."

Despite hinting at a potential groundbreaking discovery on Mars, no specific details have been released as yet. Though I'm sure those in the know at NASA may well be bursting at the seams to let us know what they have found, they are also being understandably cautious. As is so often the case with science, one needs to be sure of what they have, or have not, found. Indeed, it will apparently take several weeks until any findings, if there are any, are released.

A self-shot of the Curiosity Rover. No duck-face in sight, thankfully.
(Image courtesy of NASA)

Too often we can become excited by some breath-taking discovery, only to find that there is a simpler, more mundane, explanation available. It brings to mind the scientists over at CERN, where a a skeptical team working on the OPERA project were left scratching their heads after supposedly detecting subatomic particles, neutrinos, travelling slightly faster than the "universal speed-limit", the speed of light. As opposed to rushing to the media to capitalise on a truly remarkable discovery, they announced that they were understandably skeptical. As a consequence of this healthy skepticism, they attempted to verify the results whilst simultaneously asking other scientists to identify any potential flaws in their experimental design that may have given rise to an erroneous result.

Ultimately, it was found that the neutrinos detected by OPERA were not travelling faster than the speed of light, and were behaving as good neutrinos do. Instead of being embarrassed by rushing to let everyone know about something incredible, these scientists followed good practice and double-checked their data and, though not confirming any upheavals in the laws of physics, they set a fantastic example for all scientists.

Going back to the Curiosity Rover, and this recent hint of something newsworthy, it is nice to hear that NASA isn't overtly rushing to tell us what they allegedly have found. That being said, they are certainly building up an appreciable amount of hype over something they are currently looking into.

A few friends asked me what they may have found, and though I am no expert on the composition and chemistry of Martian soil, I gladly offered this comment:

"We won't know for sure until NASA issues an official press release, though it is fun to ponder. Evidence of past life? Complex molecules? Oil? A fat-free fudge cake that doesn't let you down in the flavor department like so many others? Only time will tell..."

Until next time,
Nathan

An interesting article: Ketamine and depression

A few days ago, I came across an article published on YaleNews, regarding new evidence on how the drug ketamine may be used to alleviate the symptoms of depression in treatment-resistant patients. In this article, it was reported that small doses of ketamine may produce an immediate, albeit temporary, relief of symptoms of severe depression. Indeed, though the effect ketamine has on the symptoms of depression has been known for some time, the exact mechanism has allegedly eluded scientists until now.

Before delving into the proposed mechanism, it may be useful to first look at the drug itself. Ketamine is an general anaesthetic, and in combination with other sedatives, may be used to induce and maintain general anaesthesia. It is chemically related to other drugs with similar structures, namely tiletamine and phencyclidine, and as such is considered to be a dissociative anaesthetic. It has also found use in veterinary medicine, for inducing general anaesthesia in animals.

Oh ketamine, you crazy anaesthetic! Humans, animals, what won't you sedate?

As with many drugs prescribed for use in a medical setting, recreational use of ketamine is not unheard of. Since ketamine is used for anaesthesia, recreational doses are typically in the sub-anaesthetic range. The effects at this particular dose resemble two other well-known dissociatives, phencyclidine and dextromethorphan. As a recreational drug, ketamine is considered to have a short half-life, and acts as a hallucinogen.

Of particular note is that ketamine, like the related compounds mentioned above, can produce what is known as a "dissociative state", whereby an individual experiences a sense of depersonalisation. To put it more plainly, the user may experience a strong detachment from physical reality. Higher doses may cause users to experience an effect known as a "K-hole". This is where the degree of dissociation from reality becomes so severe, that the effects are considered to mimic catatonic schizophrenia, near-death experiences and out-of-body experiences.

Crystals of ketamine on a glass slide. Pretty.
(Photo courtesy of Wikipedia)

As I was reading about ketamine, and in particular, recreational use of this cute little chemical, I was surprised to find that Richard Feynman, an American theoretical physicist of some note, explored the use of marijuana and ketamine to study the nature of consciousness. Indeed, in his semi-autobiographical book "Surely You're Joking, Mr. Feynman!", he describes his experimentation with ketamine. After being given 10% of a normal dose, thereby avoiding induction of anaesthesia, the following effects are described:

"I got this strange kind of feeling which I've never been able to figure out whenever I tried to characterize what the effect was. For instance, the drug had quite an effect on my vision; I felt I couldn't see clearly. But when I'd look hard at something, it would be OK."

... 

"Although I had a feeling of complete disorientation, a feeling of an inability to do practically anything, I never found a specific thing that I couldn't do."

Certainly an interesting bit of information, though it is perhaps best if we depart this tangent and get back to the purpose for this post. The article published on YaleNews indicates that current evidence suggests that ketamine may, in fact, regenerate the synaptic connections between brain cells. This is interesting, as it is these connections that may be damaged by stress and psychological conditions such as depression. The specific mechanism which has been proposed is that administration of ketamine results in the release of the neurotransmitter glutamate, which is responsible for stimulating the growth of the connection between synapses.

The review article, co-authored by Yale professors Ronald Duman and George K. Aghajanian is titled "Synaptic Dysfunction in Depression: Potential Therapeutic Targets", is honest with regards to the efficacy of ketamine in the treatment of depression. As previously stated, ketamine may produce an immediate improvement in the symptoms associated with depression. However, in the YaleNews article, author Bill Hathaway notes that:

"The improvement in symptoms, which are evident just hours after ketamine is administered, lasts only a week to 10 days"

Though this recent article Duman and  Aghajanian does highlight specific limitations regarding the use of ketamine in the treatment of treatment-resistant depression, knowledge of the specific mechanism by which symptoms of depression are alleviated provides a viable avenue for future research into this field.

The short-term cessation of symptoms associated with depression reported by Duman and Aghajanian has been described in literature previously. Indeed, another article, published in the Journal of Biological Psychiatry, and authored by James Murrough et. al., describes a similar issue with the short-term effect of ketamine with regards to depression. In particular:

"[Though] ketamine was associated with a rapid antidepressant effect in TRD (Treatment-Resistant Depression)... future controlled studies will be required to identify strategies to maintain an antidepressant response amongst patients..."

In addition, the work of aan het Rot, et. al., studies the effect of sub-anaesthetic intramuscular doses of ketamine in relation to the treatment of depression and the side effects encountered. It was found that the administration of ketamine at the dose range reported in this article elicited minimal psychotic symptoms, as well as "significant but transient dissociative symptoms". This result is interesting, as aside from using the mechanism of ketamine in treating depression to explore alternate chemical treatments for depression, it may well be possible, if not practicable, to manage the symptoms of treatment-resistant depression with repeated infusions of ketamine over regular periods of time.

In case all this talk of depression was depressing, here's a... oh...

Another potentially interesting avenue of research regarding the use of ketamine in the treatment of psychological conditions comes a letter to the editor in the American Journal of Psychiatry. In this letter, Cusin et. al., describe two cases where ketamine was used to successfully treat Treatment-Resistant Bipolar II depression. In a slight parallel to the research of Duman and Aghajanian, it was found that the cessation of symptoms was temporary, though it was found that repeated doses of ketamine every few days allowed for a potential long-term treatment for this specific condition. It should be noted that this treatment was not without its problems. Several negative side-effects were reported, and included headaches, irritability, nightmares and mild dissociative states.

On that note, it may be prudent to note that though ketamine has a history of both medical and recreational use, some care should be taken with regards to novel therapeutic applications. Aside from a range of short-term side effects associated with the use and abuse of ketamine, other negative long-term effects have also been reported. Olney's lesions, associated with the long-term use of drugs like ketamine and phenylcylidine, are cytotoxic variations in brain structure that were discovered in rat models. However, the relationship between use of dissociatives and formation of these lesions is controversial, as no causal relationship has been found in the human model.

So there you have it. Recent work by Duman and Aghajanian has provided some new insights into the mechanism by which ketamine may treat the symptoms of depression. Though some limitations have been noted, this provides a new avenue for research into the treatment of depression and ailments.

Until next time,
Nathan

Article published in the TIAFT Bulletin

More good news coming from my recent trip to Hamamatsu, Japan, for the 50th annual meeting for The International Association of Forensic Toxicologists (TIAFT). Aside from having the honour of travelling to Japan for this conference, which was most informative and allowed me to meet with my peers, I was given the opportunity to submit my research to the TIAFT Bulletin.

I was recently informed that my article, titled "Effect of selected oxidising agents on the detection of 11-nor-9-carboxy-delta-9-tetrahydrocannibinol (THC-COOH) in spiked urine" was accepted and published in the 42nd issue of the TIAFT Bulletin.

Abstract from my article. A link to the full issue of the TIAFT Bulletin and my article is included below.

As such, this is a quick post to provide a link to the latest issue of the TIAFT Bulletin (at the time of writing), and more specifically, a link to my article.

Link to a .pdf of the article in question.

Until next time,
Nathan

A Sad Story, or Why Oleander and Giraffes Don't Mix

My partner recently forwarded me a news story from Tucson, Arizona, regarding the unfortunate death of a giraffe at the Reid Park Zoo.

Based on the article, it would appear that a giraffe was accidentally fed brush trimmings that included leaves from the ornamental plant Oleander (Nerium Oleander). Oleander is a rather common ornamental plant, and is indeed ubiquitous in and around Sydney. Indeed, my primary school in South-West Sydney has a large oleander tree in the rear playground.  The leaves bear a superficial resemblance to those of the olive plant (hence the name), and have rather pretty white/pink flowers. It is rather hardy as well, being drought tolerant and capable of withstanding mild frosts, and hence has found its niche as an ornamental plant.

Pretty. Also deadly. Pretty deadly, I suppose?

Sadly, oleander is also incredibly toxic, with the leaves, bark and sap all containing a class of compounds known as cadiac glycosides. For the giraffe in the above article, what can only be presumed as an innocent mistake by a zookeeper was ultimately fatal. The response of zoo officials, in "carefully considering removing all the Oleander that's surrounding the outside of the park" is understandable.

As mentioned, oleander contains cardiac glycosides, which include the chemical oleandrin (structure below):

Definitely not giraffe friendly...

Despite the above case, cardiac glycosides are useful chemicals, and in a medical setting are used to treat congestive heart failure and arrhythmia. This use is mediated by inhibition of the sodium-potassium ion pumps present in cell membranes, which ultimately leads to an increased intracellular concentration of calcium. This, in turn, improves the force of contraction by cardiac muscle, improving cardiac output.

Unfortunately, compounds like oleandrin can also be insidiously toxic, with high doses capable of decreasing cardiac function and reducing the availability of oxygen to the tissues of the body. Without treatment, this can most certainly be fatal. Multiple cases of deaths due to ingestion (accidental or otherwise) ingestion of oleander and preparations of its leaves.  In 2000, two toddlers, aged two and three years old, died as a result of ingesting the leaves. This case is in itself unusual, as the leaves are reported to have an incredibly bitter taste, with Dr. Clarke, a medical toxicologist and director of the California Poison Control Centre, commenting that "There is not a single other case in the American literature that I know of of people eating oleander leaves and dying...".

Similarly, in the Annals of Emergency Medicine, it is reported that in 1985, a woman died after drinking a herbal tea prepared from the leaves of Neruim oleander. The article itself is interesting, as it is alleged that the woman mistook the leaves of the oleander plant for those of eucalyptus. This mistake proved fatal, as within ten hours the woman was displaying symptoms of confusion and impaired cardiac function. Staff at the hospital identified the leaves as those of the oleander plant, and took appropriate measures to prevent death. However:

"...despite these measures... the patient's cardiac rhythm deteriorated to an agonal rhythm and then to asystole. A transthoracic pacemaker was inserted... but no ventricular capture or palpable pulse resulted, and the patient was pronounced dead"

Treatment options are available in cases of oleander poisoning. Often, anti-digoxin Fab is given, which is the anti-digoxin antibody fragment. This antibody is routinely given for digoxin poisoning, which is another cardiac glycoside found in Digitalis.

Deaths due to oleander poisoning are not only limited to humans and giraffes. From livestock, including cattle and horses, through to domestic animals including dogs, oleander represents a real danger. Even goats, reputed by an old wive's tale to eat almost anything, are not immune. In general, it would appear that people are not aware of the toxicity of plants, oleander or otherwise.

As a sidenote, I feel that it would be remiss of me not to note one very interesting area of research concerning oleandrin. In the past few years, there has been some promising research indicating the possibility that oleandrin may be an anti-cancer agent. It has been found that oleandrin mediates apoptosis in tumour cells, but not in primary cells. If true, this would indicate that oleandrin may work as an anti-cancer agent with minimal side effects at the required dose. In vitro studies have also demonstrated that oleandrin may aid in the treatment of a wide range of cancers, including leukemia, pancreatic cancer and prostate cancer.

That being said, this research is still only in its early stages. However, I will be cautiously waiting for further developments in this area. This should not be an excuse for anyone to attempt ingestion of oleander. I trust that such a disclaimer is not warranted, but just to be safe, I shall include it again:

Please don't eat/ingest oleander. It really isn't a good idea. I promise. 

Until next time,
Nathan

The War on Drugs - Press Release by Australia21

In recent days there has been a really fascinating media release from a think tank known as Australia 21. Described on their website as "... an independent, non-profit organisation whose core purpose is multidisciplinary research and inquiry on issues of strategic importance to Australia in the 21st century", Australia 21 has released their much-anticipated report on discussing the costs and benefits of any potential changes to Australia's policy on illicit drugs.

The report itself is rather controversial. Not only does it broach a subject that many people still find taboo in this day and age, it also has quite a controversial title: "The Prohibition of Illicit Drugs is Killing and Criminalising Our Children and We Are All Letting It Happen". Title notwithstanding, the report makes for fascinating reading, though I must admit that at the time of writing, I am only part way through reading it. What has been clear so far is that the release of this report has already lead to debate within the wider community over current legislation regarding illicit/recreational drugs. As mentioned in a previous post, this is a contentious issue that, unfortunately, tends to be political suicide for those willing to bring it up for discussion and debate.

At any rate, the fact that drug legalisation and drug policy is once again being discussed does give one hope that a more reasonable and evidence-based approach to recreational drugs, harm minimisation and harm reduction will be reached.

Until next time,

Nathan

Artificial Sweeteners - Aspartame

A few weeks back I had the privilege to go on a road trip to Batemans Bay with some of my friends. It was a wonderful break from work, and allowed me to catch up with friends that, due to distance and/or conflicting schedules, I may only see a couple of times per year.

One morning, we were having breakfast, in preparation for a big day. Sitting at a big table, we were eating, drinking and generally being merry. During breakfast, one of my friends leant over towards me and gestured towards the diet soda that I was drinking, and began the following exchange:

Friend: "Hey, you shouldn't drink that!"
Me: "Yeah, it is a bit early in the day for soft drink, but I don't feel like coffee or juice this morning..."
Friend: "No, you shouldn't drink that. Didn't you know that the fake sugar in that was banned in the UK? It causes cancer!"
Me: "Really? I'd wager that a company can't distribute a product with a known carcinogen, and not be the subject of a law suit."
Friend: "No, it's true! I read it somewhere..."

"I read it somewhere"... A line that always makes me cringe inwardly. Perhaps it is the scientist in me, but I do prefer a good reference as opposed to an anonymous source.

At any rate, just what was my friend referring to? The nods of assent he received from my other friends from around the dining table made it seem that this substance was well known. Well, it would appear that based on my choice of beverage that fateful morning, it seems likely he was referring to aspartame, an artificial sweetener used as a sugar substitute.

Oh how sweet it is... Approximately 200 times sweeter than sucrose, in fact!

So, why does the above molecule have such a bad reputation? Well, aspartame was discovered way back in 1965 by a chemist working for G.D. Searle & Company. Originally synthesised in order to produce a potential antiulcer drug, the sweetness of aspartame was discovered when a chemist licked his finger in order to pick up a piece of paper. Evidently this chemist was not wearing gloves at the time, as during the aforementioned synthesis, his finger had been contaminated by aspartame.

Shortly after approval by the Food and Drug Administration, a chain letter posted under the pseudonym of Nancy Markle, warning of the inherent risks posed by aspartame. The alleged dangers of aspartame included an increased incidence of multiple sclerosis and brain tumors, and a dire warning that when exposed to heat, that aspartame decomposes to produce methanol, and hence consumption of products containing aspartame could lead to methanol poisoning.

Indeed, there have been numerous claims regarding aspartame and its relative safety for human consumption. The safety of aspartame has been studied extensively, and has repeatedly been deemed safe for human consumption. Regarding intake and consumption, the FDA has set the acceptable daily intake (ADI) of aspartame at 50 mg/kg of body weight. To put this into perspective, a 350-375 mL diet soft drink may contain around 180 milligrams of aspartame. For a 75 kg individual, it would therefore take approximately 20 cans of diet soft drink to exceed the ADI of aspartame.

One of the other claims made against consumption of aspartame is that it breaks down in the body to form highly toxic compounds, including aspartic acid, phenylalanine and methanol.

•  Aspartic acid: One of the most commonly encountered amino acid in a regular diet. A rather fascinating clinical study by Magnuson et. al. (2007), however, found no evidence of neurotoxic effects derived from consumption of aspartic acid. 
• Phenylalanine: One of the essential amino acids, one is likely to consume far more phenylalanine during their regular diet than from diet soft drink. That being said, those with phenylketonuria are advised to abstain from food products that contain significant amounts of phenylalanine or aspartame. 
• Methanol: The metabolism of methanol to formaldehyde, and then formaldehyde to formic acid, is implicated as one of the dangers of aspartame use. It should be noted, however, that the amount of methanol absorbed by the body as a result of consuming aspartame-containing products, is less than what would be absorbed if one consumed various fruit juices or fermented beverages. Indeed, in the article by Magnuson et. al. (above), it was found that consuming the maximum expected amount of aspartame did not result in elevated blood levels of methanol, formaldehyde or formic acid.

As for claims regarding aspartame's alleged ability to cause brain cancer, no significant links have been found to date. One study by European Ramazzini Foundation of Oncology and Environmental Sciences (ERF) alleged that aspartame is a carcinogen at normal dietary doses. However, this study has been discredited, and in fact, the European Food Safety Authority evaluated this study back in 2010. This evaluation found that there were multiple significant design flaws in the study by the ERF, and that as such, there was insufficient evidence to suggest that the safety of aspartame needed to be reconsidered.

Claims have also been made that have alleged that consumption of aspartame may result in negative neurological and psychiatric symptoms, including seizures, headaches and mood swings. Lajtha et. al. (1993) found that with regards to the biochemistry of aspartame, there is no evidence that aspartame could conceivably lead to neurotoxic effects.

So there you have it. One artificial sweetener and a number of concerns. Though it would not surprise me that in the future the safety of aspartame will be reviewed once again, for the moment it is crucial to note that there is no evidence to suggest that the use of aspartame represents any real cause for concern.

Now where did I put that can of soda...?

Organic stuff is good for you, right?

By presenting workshops and giving the occasional talk to high school students, I always make a point of allowing them to ask any relevant questions on science, chemistry and so on. I also try and ask them questions that make them think about the world and how it works. One of my favourite questions to ask is:

"Are organic things good for you?".

Most students surmise that I am referring to organic food, and respond with an emphatic "Yes!". This is a reasonable response, as depending on their year level, a number of students will not have encountered organic chemistry at this point in their schooling.

I then press the matter, and ask what does the term "organic" mean. In reply I'm told that it means that organic things are safe, natural, and so on. In response I ask whether they would eat arsenic, as it is naturally occurring. I explain that just because something is naturally occurring, it doesn't necessarily follow that it is safe.

The next question is whether they would ingest something like a cyanide salt, and receive an emphatic "No!" in response. This of course raises the question "Why?". After all, a compound like sodium cyanide is organic, and as the students have told me, organic things are safe and good for you.

At this point an explanation is in order, and discuss the different meanings attached to the word "organic". In particular, to scientists and chemists, "organic" describes a wide range of carbon-containing compounds, because hey, that's how we roll.

In short, it's always enjoyable to share knowledge during these workshops, and allowing the students to gain a more detailed understanding of the world around them.

Until next time,

Nathan

Workshops

As I've mentioned previously, I've had the opportunity to work on forensic science/chemistry workshops. Back in 2010 I was given the chance to help out one of my colleagues in setting up one of the workshops, and from there, took an active role in planning, setting up and running the workshops. Over time, I've been able to present to a range of people, young and old and from all walks of life.

Presenting workshops to high school kids is a highlight of my work at the moment. Sure, you can get a group of kids that have no interest in science, or a group that thinks it is a good idea to try and snort fingerprinting powder, but overall I've had a blast.

A typical workshop begins with a brief introduction to forensic science and how the portrayal of forensic science on television shows like CSI is often highly inaccurate. Afterwards, there is a hands-on demonstration of how to deposit fingerprints on suitable surfaces, how to develop these fingerprints with suitable fingerprint powders, and then how to lift the developed fingerprints with gelatine lifters.

Depending on the group and their interests, it's then off to the dark room and/or the microscope room. In the dark room, the students get to look at some of the cool bits of equipment available for use by undergraduate students and researchers. The Polilight is one such instrument, and allows me to show off the use of different coloured light sources in a forensic setting, and to also show fluorescence of fingerprinting reagents like Rhodamine 6G.

As an aside, the Polilight is an Australian invention, developed back in 1989. It was named by the Powerhouse Museum as one of the top 100 Australian inventions of the 20th century. Also, if you're ever in Canberra, around Dunlop, then you can visit Polilight Street. Cool, eh?

In the microscope room, students have the opportunity to view a range of items under different microscopes. They get a chance to compare and contrast different plant, animal and man-made fibres, and to look at the layers that make up a paint chip from a car.

The highlight for a reasonable number of students, however, is the mock crime scene. In the past, I was limited by the space available, though in recent months I've had the opportunity to make use of a larger and more suitable "Search Room". In short, a "Search Room" is typically used for collecting fibres from items of interest, and features a large, centrally located table in a very well-lit room. As such, I've had the chance to have some fun setting up the crime scenes, and have been able to draw a bit of inspiration from shows such as Dexter.

After all this is a quick Q&A session, answering any and all questions that the students have about university life, research, science, chemistry, drugs and poisons, autopsies and so on.

Here are a few shots of a crime scene I set up late last year, making full use of my fake blood recipe.

Oh the humanity! Or in the case, mannequinity!

Another view of the crime scene.

The right lighting conditions for murder most foul.

The possessions of the deceased.

Fake blood. Also, ouch!

More blood, and a different view of the crime scene.

I was always rather concerned about how gory this crime scene was, and how the students would respond. In the past I have had a few students who have become green around the gills when I mention blood, corpses or things of that nature. I shouldn't have worried though, as the students that got to experience this crime scene thought it was fantastic. Apparently more blood and gore the better, eh?

Well, hope you enjoyed all that. Until next time, warmest regards,
Nathan

Drugs Policy - Ecstasy

Though drugs policy is certainly a contentious issue, it is something worth commenting on. Walking through Sydney the other day, I happened across a poster regarding the production of ecstasy, and the nasty chemicals that are involved in its production.

This gave me pause. Certainly, harm minimisation and decreasing the incidence of recreational drug use (especially in teens) is ostensibly a worthy cause. However, this poster concerned me, not due to its portrayal of a clandestine laboratory, but the text associated with it:

"Made using drain cleaner, battery acid or even hair bleach. Then popped in your mouth"

Granted, a number of people would not necessarily understand the implications of this poster if it said:

"Made using sodium hydroxide, sulfuric acid or even hydrogen peroxide. 

Then popped in your mouth"

That being said, I feel that this poster is disingenuous, if only because it attempts to provoke fear, in particular, fear of chemicals. As mentioned in an earlier post, chemophobia is a tricky issue in modern society, where awareness of the health implications of exposure to toxic compounds is increasing. This awareness, however, has become associated with an irrational fear or distrust of, dare I say it, chemicals!

So, back to the poster. A wide range of synthetic routes are available for the production of MDMA from its precursors. The poster in question appears to reference a specific synthetic route, starting with isomerisation of safrole to isosafrole. Indeed, this method does involve the use of sulfuric acid, hydrogen peroxide and a strong base, as well as various other chemicals. In this regard, the poster is accurate, in that a clandestine laboratory may indeed use this particular scheme. 

At this point, we must ask ourselves what is the purpose of including the named chemicals in the above poster? It isn't to provide a cheat sheet a person on the street can use to start up their own little clandestine laboratory in suburbia. Again, it comes back to the use of scientific and chemistry-related terms to invoke fear, so as to scare off any would-be first time users of ecstasy, because hey, it contains chemicals.

To be blunt, and not to condone the production of recreational drugs, but one would imagine that a drug manufacturer would try not to actively poison their clientele. Of course, the use of adulterants and cutting agents to increase the bulk of a drug, or to alter its psychoactive effects are nothing new, and have been reported on. It is also unfortunately true that there have been reported fatalities due to ecstasy, whether due to overdose, adulteration and/or  polydrug abuse.

Back to the underlying element of chemophobia though. The three named chemicals in the above poster are sulfuric acid, hydrogen peroxide and sodium hydroxide. Though I dare say I don't often encounter sulfuric acid in everyday life, I do come into contact with hydrogen peroxide and sodium hydroxide. Regularly, in fact. Worse still, despite the warning of the poster, I put them in my mouth! Fear not, I don't swallow them. There is hydrogen peroxide in my mouthwash, and sodium hydroxide in various toothpastes. As for sulfuric acid, it is vital for a number of chemical reactions that produce a wide range of compounds, in particular those that are involve nitration in their synthesis.

Hmm... Perhaps this will make an interesting experiment for myself, and something I can report back on. I will endeavour to look at some everyday objects I encounter, and look at the chemicals that are present in them. 

Until next time, thanks for reading,

Nathan

On Chemophobia - Dihydrogen Monoxide

Perhaps one of the more interesting issues I encounter as a chemist is that of chemophobia, an irrational fear of chemicals.

In my experience it emerges as a lack of understanding of what chemicals are, the fact that everything in our world is composed of chemicals, and most important of all, a lack of understanding of the relationship between dose and effect.

In relation to dose, the German/Swiss alchemist Phillipus Aureolus Theophrastus Bombastus von Hohenheim, better known as Paracelsus, said it best:

"All things are poison, and nothing is without poison; only the dose permits something not to be poisonous" 

Or as it is more simply put:

"The dose makes the poison"

One of the advantages of working with high school students in forensic/chemistry workshops is that it allows me to gauge their understanding of the chemical world. Whether it be a discussion on what the term "organic" means, the painful debate over the safety of vaccinations, or what everyday objects contain, the questions and feedback I receive are truly fascinating.

Perhaps one of my favourite demonstrations draws on the rather popular Dihydrogen Monoxide (DHMO) hoax of years gone by. In my demonstrations, it begins by politely asking for volunteers from the audience, and if none are forthcoming, a bribe of crime scene tape works a charm. After the volunteers are assembled, I don my labcoat, goggles, and some nitrile gloves before continuing.

I then ask my volunteers to produce one of their hands, preferably their non-writing hand, before nervously producing a vial containing that dastardly compound, DHMO. After gingerly placing a drop on each of the volunteers' preferred and proferred hands, a short statement regarding the dangers of DHMO is read out. Ususally DHMO is switched out for the IUPAC name "oxidane", in order to throw off any students aware of the DHMO hoax.

Hide the children! It's oxidane!

The students are then questioned on any ill effects that they are experiencing following exposure. The effects I've had rattled off to me are curious, and have included anything from tremors, sweating and increased heart rate, to headaches, stomach cramps and dizziness. To quell any further worries, the ruse is revealed, and the students calm down significantly.

The goal of all this is to demonstrate that an awareness of chemistry, if not an active interest in it, combined with a healthy dose of skepticism, can prove invaluable.After all, it pays to be aware of the world around you, and to have at the very least a basic knowledge of how things work. This brings to mind a very salient quote by Neil Degrasse Tyson:

"If you're scientifically literate, the world looks very different to you"

In future posts, I will further discuss chemophobia and how people perceive chemicals, more broadly, chemistry.

Well, that wraps up this post. Thanks for reading!

Greetings to an electronic world

Greetings. This marks the first post on my blog.

My labcoat

 I am currently a PhD student, studying in the field of forensic toxicology. I was first drawn to science at a young age, with the gift of a chemistry set that would, in today's world, be seen as rather dangerous. In my mind, the chemicals were rather innocuous,  and allowed me to explore a world that exists parallel to our own, though on a much smaller scale. That chemistry set, that I still recall fondly, kindled a fire inside me to better understand our world. From simple experiments, like making pH indicators, crystallising compounds and so on, it provided much joy to me. It also allowed me to turn my hand bright orange, a result of an overzealous mind bored when the listed experiments were completed.

This fascination with science has not only lead to my current position as a PhD student in Sydney, but has also given me the opportunity to work with high school students, and present forensic science and chemistry workshops for those that are interested. The look of excitement and fascination on the faces of the students bestows a remarkable feeling, and I am glad to be able to have a chance to ignite and pass on a passion for science that a humble chemistry set ignited in me all those years ago. 

The research that I am currently working on pertains to urine testing for recreational substances, specifically, cannabis use. Though urine testing for a range of licit and illicit substances is well established, in recent years there has been an increasing problem with the use of adulterants to chemically alter urine samples in order to obtain a false negative. Currently, I am exploring a range of oxidising agents and their effect on urine samples that have been spiked with a key metabolite of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), 11-nor-9-carboxy THC (THC-COOH).

The key issue with the use of adulterants, in particular oxidising adulterants, is that they react with the metabolites present in a positive urine sample. These reactions render common methods to test urine samples ineffective. From immunoassays such as ELISA, to mass spectrometric techniques, these samples fly under the radar, as it were, for subtle changes to the structure of the metabolites of interest result in novel compounds that are not associated with a positive urine sample. Therefore, it has been the goal of my research to react THC-COOH with a range of oxidising agents, and to explore whether novel reaction products are formed, and if so, whether they are stable and suitable for incorporation into current testing procedures. 

Urine adulteration has therefore become an increasing problem for law enforcement agencies. This has been compounded by the availability of a number of oxidising agents, able to be bought online or at your local supermarket. On that note, from the fantastic Adult Swim cartoon Metalocalypse, some insight on this matter:

Pickles: Dudes, we party too hard, so our bodies are in terrible shape. We gotta trick the doctor by making it seem like we're in really good shape. And there's only one way to do that. Bleach. [holds up a jug of bleach] Here, drink this Murderface. [hands it to Murderface]

Skwisgaar: Uhh, maybe this ams a stupid question, buts, why don'ts we just pours bleach into our cups of...urines?

Pickles: [looking angry at the suggestion] No! Drink the bleach!

Nathan: Bleach is healthy. It's mostly water. And we are mostly water. Therefore, we are bleach.

Or if you prefer a clip:

As a sidenote, please don't drink bleach. Pretty please?

Results have been promising to date. A number of viable oxidising agents have been selected, including betadine, alkaline hypochlorite (bleach), potassium/sodium nitrite, and pyridinium chlorochromate. As THC-COOH is quite prone to oxidation, a number of viable intermediates and products have been isolated, and are in the process of being analysed. For the oxidising agents containing halogens, it appears that electrophilic aromatic substitution (EAS) produces mono-halogen derivatives of THC-COOH as intermediates, with the di-halogen (di-chloro and di-iodo) THC-COOH derivatives representing the ultimate products. For nitrite-based reactions, an unstable nitroso-containing derivative forms, which undergoes further reaction to produce a stable nitro-THC-COOH compound.

Well, that covers who I am and what I do. As for this blog, well, I intend to comment on the perception of science, chemistry and drugs within society, and to discuss fascinating articles and the like.

So, thank you for reading this far. I truly hope that you will find my writings and ramblings fascinating. With kindest regards,
Nathan